Seven years of studying the associations between political polarization and problematic information: a literature review.

This literature review examines the intersection between political polarization and problematic information, two phenomena prominent in recent events like the 2016 Trump election and the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. We analyzed 68 studies out of over 7,000 records using quantitative and qualitative methods. Our review revealed a lack of research on the relationship between political polarization and problematic information and a shortage of theoretical consideration of these phenomena. Additionally, US samples and Twitter and Facebook were frequently analyzed. The review also found that surveys and experiments were commonly used, with polarization significantly predicting problematic information consumption and sharing.

Countering violent extremism in central Asia and South Asia: Islamophobia and cyber-radicalization in the digital era

Widespread political and economic uncertainty following the COVID-19 pandemic, paired with increased access to digital messaging and online social media platforms, has rendered vulnerable populations in Central Asia and South Asia (CASA) even more susceptible to misinformation, radical propaganda, and population targeting by violent extremists. More, studies show that violent extremism is inextricably linked with Islamophobia. Violent extremist recruiters frequently capitalize on publicized Islamophobic events to spread digital misinformation and lure disenfranchised recruits, particularly among youth populations. A debilitated Afghanistan only compounds these issues in CASA. The growing humanitarian crisis in the wake of U.S. military withdrawal, leaves this impoverished nation ripe for the proliferation of violent extremist activity that will reach far beyond its borders. Weaponized cyber-misinformation is a moving target that threatens even rural populations. Effective deterrence calls for novel multilateral efforts between great and local powers, both on and offline, to dispel skewed narratives and reinforce positive counter-narratives. While expanding access to digital communications in CASA presents obvious challenges for countering violent extremism, it likewise affords vital new opportunities for cooperation between global and regional powers to reach previously unreachable, vulnerable populations. © The Author(s), 2022. All rights reserved.

THE RIGHT TO ABORTION DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES: DIVERSIFICATION OF APPROACHES

The article, based on a comparative analysis of the practice of foreign countries, examines the main trends in the development of the rights to legal termination of pregnancy (abortion), which were subject to restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is shown that in the context of the pandemic, access to abortion has decreased in almost all states, with a few exceptions. At the same time, significant restrictions on reproductive rights occur in the context of previously developed strategies and are directed towards the radicalization of approaches to abortion, which is demonstrated on the basis of an analysis of the decision of the Constitutional Tribunal of Poland of October 22, 2020, as an attempt by conservative politicians and the Catholic Church to finally limit reproductive choice and legitimize their priorities in the dispute about the beginning of the life of the human fetus. Ambiguous approaches to the regulation of abortion show that reforms are not complete and that abortion policy needs to be further explored during COVID-19. © 2022, Russian Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Radicalizing moral conservatism in herd immunity during COVID-19.

The concept of herd immunity during the coronavirus disease 2019 is constantly changing. The World Health Organization's current focus is on vaccination. With ties to the bioethics of autonomy and exemptions to mandatory vaccinations, the problem is that moral conservatism tends not to cooperate in the rollouts. Radical means can be applied not just to the concept but also its application, emphasizing the need to depart from conservative hindrances to public health.

Conspiracy theories, radicalization and quest for significance

The Covid-19 pandemic has represented and continues to represent a moment of crisis for many societies worldwide. During times of emergency like this, conspiracy theories spread very quickly as they provide simple explanations to complex events giving the illusion of being in control of an unknown and often frightening reality. Recently there has been an increase in the spread, especially online, of conspiracy theories connected both to the Covid-19 pandemic and to other social events. However, the spread of conspiracy theories can have very serious social consequences such as favoring the flourishing of forms of radicalization. In the present cross-sectional research conducted in Italy (N = 197) we used the Significance Quest Theory (SQT;Kruglanski et al., 2017) to describe how radicalization is connected to the quest for significance that can lead people to embrace a conspiracy mentality which in turn can support radicalized cognitions and behaviors. The results of this study reveal that the relationships between quest for significance and the tendency to radicalization and forms of prejudice towards immigrants, are partly explained by conspiracy thinking. The theoretical-practical implications of this research take into consideration the developments of SQT applied to the understanding of conspiracy thinking and the prefiguration of educational actions to be designed in a transformative perspective.

Secondhand Conspiracy Theories: The Social, Emotional and Political Tolls on Loved Ones of QAnon Followers

QAnon is a set of conspiracy theories that originated online in 2017 and achieved a sizable following in the U.S. and around the world. QAnon's viral disinformation contributed to violent crimes committed by QAnon followers based on their conspiratorial beliefs, as well as to participation of some QAnon followers in the January 6(th) attack on Capitol Hill in Washington, DC, and to widespread COVID vaccine hesitancy and rejection among believers. This paper presents a to-date unexplored additional cost of conspiracy beliefs: the emotional, social and political toll a relationship with QAnon followers can have on their loved ones. In an Internet survey of 288 U.S.-based participants, a majority (80%) reported having a QAnon-following family member or friend. These relationships have suffered as a result of the loved one's conspiratorial beliefs, leading to self-reported emotional distress and reevaluation of participants' views of the government and society. Participants with a QAnon loved one reported higher anxiety and PTSD than those without such connection. On average, participants viewed QAnon as significantly more radical (willing to engage in illegal or violent acts) than themselves. Perceived QAnon radicalization was predicted by own anxiety and by relationship deterioration with QAnon loved one. The discussion focuses on the importance of tracking these secondhand effects of conspiracy theories as drivers of political polarization.

Politicization and Radicalization of Discourses in the Alt-Tech Ecosystem: A Case Study on Gab Social

With the increasing popularity of some alternative social media platforms, the flow of information has to some extent shifted from the periphery to the core, where problematic discourses are produced, reproduced, and amplified in the alternative ecosystem, to later find their way into mainstream platforms. The non- or less-moderated nature of some alternative platforms provides a suitable space for politicization and radicalization of discourses. In this article, we use a case study of conversations about vaccination on Gab Social—an alternative platform often conceptualized as a far-right platform—to examine this radicalization process through a mixed-methods analysis of over 68,000 vaccination-related posts from before the COVID-19 pandemic until August 2021. The article shows that while antagonistic and conspiratorial thinking was an element of vaccination discourses on Gab even before the pandemic, such conversations became gradually politicized, and expanded far beyond the medical discourse and entered the domain of organizational politics. © The Author(s) 2022.

Corrigendum: Conspiracy Theories: A Public Health Concern and How to Address It.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.682931.].

“Resistance!”: Collective Action Cues in Conspiracy Theory-Endorsing Facebook Groups

Conspiracy theories on social media have been suspected of contributing to mobilization and radicalization. Yet, few studies have examined the prevalence of psychological variables that may serve to motivate normative and non-normative collective action in this material. Drawing from the “social identity model of collective action,” the current study uses a mixed-methods approach to examine the prevalence of collective action cues in conspiracy theory-endorsing social media spaces. Towards this end, I examined four German Facebook groups (Covid-19-Skeptic, Far-Right, Chemtrail, and Political Affairs) during the first months of the Covid-19 pandemic. The results of qualitative content analysis (N = 828 posts), a hierarchical cluster analysis, and the examination of popularity cues showed that: (a) collective action cues were frequent;(b) most posts transmitted alternative views (Cluster 1) or absolutist ideologies (Cluster 2) with few collective action cues—yet, more than one-third of the posts were either mobilizing (Cluster 3) or wrathful (Cluster 4), entailing multiple collective action cues including cues theoretically linked to non-normative action;(c) mobilizing and wrathful posts were more engaging than alternative views and absolutist ideologies;(d) the types of posts and levels of engagement varied between the examined groups such that the Chemtrail and the Far-Right group disseminated more content with a higher mobilizing potential. The Far-Right group was also the most active in responding to its members. The results of this study are novel in that they demonstrate the prevalence of cues that have been linked to non-normative collective action in psychological research within conspiracy theory-endorsing Facebook groups.

Meaning in Life, Future Orientation and Support for Violent Radicalization Among Canadian College Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has increased levels of uncertainty and social polarization in our societies, compromising young people's capacity to envision a positive future and maintain a meaningful sense of purpose in life. Within a positive youth development framework, the present study investigates the associations of a positive future orientation, presence of and search for meaning in life, and support for violent radicalization (VR) in a diverse sample of Canadian college students. In addition, we investigate the moderating role of future orientation in the association between presence of and search for a meaning in life and support for VR. A total of 3,100 college students in Québec (Canada) (69% female; M age = 18.57, SD age = 1.76) completed an online survey during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Results from linear mixed-effects models indicate that a positive future orientation and a higher presence of a meaning in life were negatively and independently associated with support for VR. Search for meaning in life was not associated with support for VR. The magnitude of the negative association between presence of a meaning in life and support for VR was greater among students with a more positive future orientation. Schools and colleges are in a privileged position to implement preventive interventions to support a positive future orientation and the presence of a meaning in life among young people during these challenging and uncertain times and reduce the risk of violence related to extreme ideologies in our rapidly changing society.

Cumulative and independent effects of experiences of social adversity on support for violent radicalization during the COVID-19 pandemic: the mediating role of depression.

PURPOSE: Social adversity experiences have increased during the pandemic and are potential risk factors for both depression and support for violent radicalization (VR). However, the cumulative and independent effects of various social adversity experiences on support for VR have yet to be explored. This paper examines the cumulative and independent effects of COVID- and non-COVID-related discrimination, exposure to violence, traditional and cyberbullying victimization on support for VR. In addition, we investigate whether depression mediates the relationship between these forms of social adversity and support for VR. METHODS: A total of 6003 young adults (Mage = 27, SDage = 4.40, range 18-35) living in metropolitan areas in Canada responded to an online survey. We used multivariable regression models, controlling for socio-demographic characteristics, to infer covariate adjusted associations between social adversity measures and support for VR. Additionally, we conducted a formal mediation analysis to estimate the proportion mediated by depression. RESULTS: There was a cumulative relationship between experiences of social adversity and support for VR (ß = 1.52; 95% CI: 1.32, 1.72). COVID-related discrimination and cyberbullying victimization were independently associated with stronger support for VR. Depression partially mediated the effect of cumulative social adversity, COVID-related discrimination and cyberbullying on support for VR. CONCLUSION: Prevention programs during the present pandemic should prioritize decreasing discrimination and providing psychosocial support to depressed young adults who experience social adversity. Practitioners should prioritize developing programs that foster digital literacy skills and critical thinking among young adults to address the concerning impact of cyberbullying on support for VR.

Conspiracy Theories: A Public Health Concern and How to Address It.

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic was characterized by a significant increase in the endorsement of conspiracy theories. Conspiracy theories are narratives that can enable and accentuate distrust toward health professionals and authorities. As such, they can lead to violent radicalization and should be considered a public health issue. This perspective article aims to further the understanding of professionals on conspiracy theories via the 3N model of radicalization and self-determination theory. Based on empirical research, theory, and existing interventions, potential initiatives intended to tackle the issue of conspiracy theories during pandemics are also presented.

Conspiracy Theories, Psychological Distress, and Sympathy for Violent Radicalization in Young Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study.

The COVID-19 pandemic has spread uncertainty, promoted psychological distress, and fueled interpersonal conflict. The concomitant upsurge in endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories is worrisome because they are associated with both non-adherence to public health guidelines and intention to commit violence. This study investigates associations between endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories, support for violent radicalization (VR) and psychological distress among young adults in Canada. We hypothesized that (a) endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories is positively associated with support for VR, and (b) psychological distress modifies the relationship between COVID-19 conspiracy theories and support for VR. A total of 6003 participants aged 18-35 years old residing in four major Canadian cities completed an online survey between 16 October 2020 and 17 November 2020, that included questions about endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories, support for VR, psychological distress, and socio-economic status. Endorsement of conspiracy theories was associated with support for VR in multivariate regression (ß = 0.88, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.80-0.96). There is a significant interaction effect between endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories and psychological distress (ß = 0.49, 95% CI 0.40-0.57). The magnitude of the association was stronger in individuals reporting high psychological distress (ß = 1.36, 95% CI 1.26-1.46) compared to those reporting low psychological distress (ß = 0.47, 95% CI 0.35-0.59). The association between endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories and VR represents a public health challenge requiring immediate attention. The interaction with psychological distress suggests that policy efforts should combine communication and psychological strategies to mitigate the legitimation of violence.

Theory of Motivated Cue-Integration and COVID-19: Between Interoception, Somatization, and Radicalization.

The global dissemination of COVID-19 creates confusion and ambiguity in nearly every aspect of life, including fear of contagion, heightened awareness of the mortality of self and family members, lack of power, and distrust of experts and decision-makers. In this stressful situation, the question arises as to what mechanisms distinguish between adaptive and maladaptive self-regulation. The theory of Motivated Cue-Integration (MCI) is a novel theory of self-regulation that provides a new perspective on the effect of COVID-19 on self-regulation deficiency as an example of psychological distress. Inspired by predictive coding, social cognition, embodied cognition, and experiential approach, MCI suggests that self-regulation is based on interaction between (1) high-level values and goals, (2) low-level interoceptive and exteroceptive signals, and (3) trust in epistemic authority or a significant other. Motivated Cue-Integration posits that individuals create meaning by making moment-to-moment predictions that affect their interpretation of the experience of ambiguity influenced by their relationship with epistemic authority. According to MCI, deficiency in self-regulation during COVID-19 could result either from over-sensitivity or under-sensitivity to low-level interoceptive and exteroceptive cues; rigidity or ambiguity of high-level goals, poor integration between the two levels of processing as well as distrust in epistemic authority. According to MCI, variations of these deficiencies may occur in various clinical phenomena such as alexithymia and somatization, as well as in social phenomena such as goal radicalization. Based on this reasoning, MCI claims that the mentalization of the relationship between interoceptive cues, exteroceptive cues, goals, and psychological needs of the person, as well as the improvement of confidence in epistemic authority, can promote adaptive self-regulation. Psychological intervention can foster trust in epistemic authority, increase the mentalization of interoceptive and exteroceptive cues, and their association with adaptive goals. As such, the integration of these elements in a way that facilitates incentives pathways and insight fosters a more integrated subjective experience, higher clarity of emotion, and positive internal dialogue which promotes action tendency.